Indonesia

Conventional Long Name	Republic of Indonesia
Common Name	Indonesia
Native Name	«Republik Indonesia»
Image Flag
Image Coat
Symbol Type	Emblem
National Motto	(Old Javanese) "Unity in Diversity"
Other Symbol	(Sanskrit) "The Five Principles"
Other Symbol Type	National ideology and philosophy:
National Anthem	«Indonesia Raya» "Great Indonesia" File:Indonesia Raya instrumental.ogg
Image Map	frameless Show globe frameless Show ASEAN
Capital	Jakarta
Coordinates	6°10′S, 106°49′E
Largest City	capital
Official Languages	Indonesian
Demonym	Indonesian
Languages Type	Indigenous languages
Languages Sub	yes
Languages	718 languages
Languages2 Type	Writing system
Languages2	Latin (predominantly)
Ethnic Groups Year	2010
Ethnic Groups	40.2% Javanese 15.5% Sundanese 3.7% Malay 3.6% Batak 3.0% Madurese 34.0% others (600+ ethnic groups)
Religion Year	2024
Religion	* 87.1% Islam * 10.45% Christianity 7.38% Protestantism 3.07% Catholicism * 1.7% Hinduism * 0.8% Buddhism, Folk, Confucianism, and others

Government Type	Unitary presidential republic
Leader Title1	President
Leader Name1	Prabowo Subianto
Leader Name2	Gibran Rakabuming Raka
Leader Title3	House Speaker
Leader Name3	Puan Maharani
Leader Title4	Supreme Court
Leader Name4	Sunarto
Leader Title5	Constitutional Court
Leader Name5	Suhartoyo
Legislature	People's Consultative Assembly (MPR)
Upper House	Regional Representative Council (DPD)
Lower House	House of Representatives (DPR)
Sovereignty Type	Independence
Sovereignty Note	from the Netherlands
Established Event1	Proclaimed
Established Date1	17 August 1945
Established Event2	Recognised
Established Date2	27 December 1949
Area Km2	1,904,569
Area Label	Total
Area Rank	14th
Area Sq Mi	735,358
Area Label2	Water (%)
Area Data2	4.85
Population Estimate	284,438,782
Population Census	270,203,917
Population Estimate Year	2025
Population Estimate Rank	4th
Population Census Year	2020
Population Density Km2	143
Population Density Sq Mi	371
Population Density Rank	88th
Gdp Ppp	$5.009 trillion
Gdp Ppp Year	2025
Gdp Ppp Rank	7th
Gdp Ppp Per Capita	$17,612
Gdp Ppp Per Capita Rank	103rd
Gdp Nominal	$1.430 trillion
Gdp Nominal Year	2025
Gdp Nominal Rank	17th
Gdp Nominal Per Capita	$5,027
Gdp Nominal Per Capita Rank	116th
Gini	37.9
Gini Year	2024
Gini Change	decrease

Hdi	0.728
Hdi Year	2023
Hdi Change	increase

Hdi Rank	113th
Currency	Indonesian rupiah (Rp)
Currency Code	IDR
Time Zone	WIB, WITA, WIT
Utc Offset	+7, +8, +9
Date Format	DD/MM/YYYY
Drives On	left
Calling Code	+62
Cctld	.id

Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between the Indian and Pacific oceans. Comprising over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guinea, Indonesia is the world's largest archipelagic state and the 14th-largest country by area, at 1904569km2. Indonesia has significant areas of wilderness that support one of the world's highest levels of biodiversity. It shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, Timor-Leste, and Malaysia, as well as maritime borders with seven other countries, including Australia, Singapore, and the Philippines.

The Indonesian archipelago has been inhabited since prehistoric times, with early human presence evidenced by fossils of Homo erectus and Homo sapiens, and megalithic sites. By the early second millennium, it had become a crossroads for international trade linking East and South Asia. Over the centuries, external influences—including Hinduism, Buddhism and later Islam—were absorbed into local societies, which introduced lasting cultural and religious influences. European powers later competed to monopolise trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku during the Age of Discovery, followed by three and a half centuries of Dutch colonial rule, before Indonesia proclaimed its independence after World War II.

Since independence, Indonesia has grappled with numerous challenges including separatism, corruption, political upheaval and natural disasters, alongside democratisation and rapid economic growth. The country today is a presidential republic with an elected legislature and consists of 38 provinces, some of which enjoy greater autonomy than others. Home to over 280 million people, Indonesia ranks fourth in the world by population and has the largest Muslim population of any country. More than half of Indonesians live on Java, the most heavily populated island in the world, while the capital Jakarta is the world's largest urban agglomeration.

Indonesian society comprises hundreds of ethnic and linguistic groups, with Javanese forming the largest. National identity is unified under the motto Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, reflected by a national language alongside cultural and religious pluralism. A newly industrialised country, Indonesia has the largest national economy in Southeast Asia by GDP. The country plays an active role in regional and global affairs as a middle power and is a member of major multilateral organisations, including the United Nations, G20, the Non-Aligned Movement, ASEAN, and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.

Etymology

Names of Indonesia

The Indonesian archipelago has carried different names in the past, such as "East Indies" in this 1855 map.

The name Indonesia derives from the Greek words «Indos» («Ἰνδός») and «nesos» («νῆσος»), meaning . The name dates back to the 19th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, Malayunesians—for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or Malay Archipelago". In the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia. They preferred Malay Archipelago («Maleische Archipel»); the Netherlands East Indies («Nederlandsch Oost Indië»), popularly «Indië»; the East («de Oost»); and «Insulinde».

After 1900, Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and native nationalist groups adopted it for political expression. Adolf Bastian of the University of Berlin popularised the name through his book «Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894». The first native scholar to use the name was Ki Hajar Dewantara, who established a press bureau in the Netherlands, «Indonesisch Pers-bureau», in 1918.

History

History of Indonesia

Early history

Prehistoric Indonesia

One of the oldest known figurative paintings, a depiction of a bull, was discovered in the Lubang Jeriji Saléh cave dated as 40,000 to 44,000 years old.

The Indonesian archipelago has been inhabited since prehistoric times. Fossils of Homo erectus ("Java Man") date back between 2 million and 500,000 BCE, while Homo sapiens arrived around 50,000 BCE. Archaeological discoveries, including cave paintings in Sulawesi and Borneo and megalithic sites across Sumatra, Sulawesi, and eastern Indonesia, reflect early human settlement and ritual practices.

Around 2000 BCE, Austronesian peoples migrated into the archipelago from Taiwan, gradually spreading eastward and shaping much of Indonesia's linguistic and cultural foundations. By the 8th century BCE, favourable agricultural conditions and the development of wet-field rice cultivation supported the emergence of villages and early polities by the first century CE. The archipelago's strategic location facilitated sustained contact with civilisations from the Indian subcontinent and mainland China, profoundly influencing Indonesian history and culture through trade.

From the 7th century, maritime kingdoms such as Srivijaya rose to prominence on trade, adopting Hindu and Buddhist influences. Between the 8th and 10th centuries, the Sailendra and Mataram dynasties left enduring architectural legacies, including Borobudur and Prambanan. Following a failed Mongol invasion of Java, the Majapahit empire emerged in the late 13th century, dominating much of the archipelago. Islam began to take root around the same time in northern Sumatra, and gradually became the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the 16th century. It blended with existing local traditions, producing a distinct Islamic culture, particularly in Java.

Colonial era

Dutch East Indies

European involvement in the archipelago began in the early 16th century with Portuguese traders seeking control of the spice trade. The Dutch soon followed, establishing the Dutch East India Company (Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, VOC) in 1602. Over time, the VOC became the dominant European power until its dissolution in 1800, after which its possessions were transferred to the Dutch state as the Dutch East Indies. Dutch control over the archipelago was tenuous and uneven, facing resistance across Java, Sumatra, Bali, and Aceh. Consolidation of Dutch colonial rule over Indonesia's modern boundaries was largely completed only in the early 20th century, after the Dutch established posts in western New Guinea.

Japanese invasion and occupation during World War II ended Dutch rule and encouraged Indonesia's independence movement. Shortly after Japan's surrender, Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta issued the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence, and they became the country's first president and vice-president, along with Sutan Sjahrir as Prime Minister. The Netherlands attempted to reassert control, prompting the start of Indonesia's war of independence against the Dutch. The conflict lasted until 1949 when the Dutch recognised Indonesian independence amid international pressure.

Post-World War II

Sukarno shifted Indonesia from democracy to authoritarianism, and maintained power by balancing the opposing forces of political Islam, the military, and the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI). Rising tensions culminated in an attempted coup in 1965, followed by a violent, widespread and military-led anti-communist purge. The PKI was blamed for the coup and destroyed, and Sukarno's power weakened. Major General Suharto capitalised on this and assumed the presidency in 1968, establishing a US-backed "New Order" military dictatorship, which fostered foreign direct investment and drove three decades of substantial economic growth.

Indonesia's invasion of East Timor in 1975 and the subsequent occupation drew international condemnation, and the regime came under growing criticism for human rights abuses after the Cold War ended. The New Order was destabilised when Indonesia became affected by the 1997 Asian financial crisis, bringing out widespread discontent with the New Order's corruption and political suppression and ultimately ended Suharto's rule. In 1999, East Timor voted to secede after a 24-year military occupation that some scholars classified as genocide.

In the post-Suharto era since 1998, Indonesia has undertaken democratic reforms including the introduction of regional autonomy and the first direct presidential election. Instability and terrorism were persistent in the 2000s but the economy has performed strongly since 2004 despite pervasive corruption. Relations among the diverse population are mostly harmonious, but sectarian discontent and violence remain problematic in some areas. A political settlement to a separatist insurgency in Aceh was achieved in 2005.

Geography

Geography of Indonesia

Mount Semeru and Mount Bromo in East Java. Indonesia's seismic and volcanic activity is among the world's highest.

Indonesia's physical geography is defined by its vast archipelagic extent and diverse landforms. It lies between latitudes 11°S and 6°N and longitudes 95°E and 141°E, and is the world's largest archipelagic state, stretching 5120km from east to west and 1760km from north to south. The exact number of Indonesia's islands varies according to different sources, usually ranging from 13,000 to 17,000, with around 922 permanently inhabited. Its five main islands are Sumatra, Java, Borneo (shared with Brunei and Malaysia), Sulawesi, and New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea).

The country features diverse topography, including towering mountains, vast lakes, and extensive river systems. At 4884m, Puncak Jaya in New Guinea is Indonesia's highest peak, while Lake Toba in Sumatra, covering 1,145km2, is the largest lake. The country's major rivers, primarily in Kalimantan, include Kapuas, Barito and Mahakam, serving as vital transportation and communication routes for remote riverine communities.

Climate

Climate of Indonesia

Rainforest in Mount Palung National Park, West Kalimantan

Indonesia's climate is shaped by its equatorial position and monsoon systems. The former helps ensure a relatively stable climate year-round, characterised by two main seasons: the dry season from May to October and the wet season from November to April, with no extremes of summer and winter. The climate is predominantly tropical rainforest, with cooler climates in higher areas over 500m above sea level.

Rainfall patterns vary across the archipelago, with regions like western Sumatra, Java, and the interiors of Kalimantan and Papua receiving more precipitation, while areas closer to Australia, such as Nusa Tenggara, are drier. The warm waters covering 81% of Indonesia's area keep land temperatures stable, with high humidity (70–90%) and moderate, predictable winds influenced by monsoon cycles. Major weather hazards include strong currents in straits, such as the Lombok and Sape Straits, rather than tropical cyclones.

Several studies consider Indonesia to be at severe risk from the projected effects of climate change. A temperature rise of 1.5C-change could intensify droughts, disrupt rainfall patterns critical to agriculture, and increase occurrences of food shortages, diseases, and wildfires. Rising sea levels would threaten densely populated coastal regions, particularly given Indonesia's extensive coastlines. Impoverished communities are expected to be disproportionately affected.

Geology

Geology of Indonesia
List of volcanoes in Indonesia

Lake Toba in North Sumatra, the world's largest known Cenozoic caldera.

Indonesia's geology is shaped by its position on the Pacific Ring of Fire, namely a subduction zone where several tectonic plates collide. This tectonic activity makes the region highly unstable with volcanoes and earthquakes. Around 130 volcanoes are classified as active, stretching from Sumatra through Java, Bali and the Lesser Sunda Islands, and the Banda Islands to northeastern Sulawesi. Volcanic ash, while harmful to agriculture, has created fertile soils that have historically sustained the high population densities of regions with volcanoes, such as Java and Bali.

The archipelago has witnessed several powerful volcanic eruptions with global repercussions. A massive supervolcano erupted at present-day Lake Toba around 74,000 BCE, which possibly influenced human evolution. The eruption of Mount Tambora in 1815 had global climatic effects, making much of the Northern Hemisphere without summer in 1816, while the eruption of Mount Krakatoa in 1883 produced the loudest sound in recorded history, with additional worldwide impacts. Recent catastrophic disasters due to seismic activity include the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the 2018 Sulawesi earthquake.

Biodiversity

Fauna of Indonesia

Recognised by Conservation International as one of 17 megadiverse countries, Indonesia hosts one of the world's highest levels of biodiversity due to its tropical climate, large size, and archipelagic geography. The country's flora and fauna include a mix of Asian and Australasian species. The Sunda Shelf islands (Sumatra, Java, and Borneo) have a wealth of Asian fauna as they were once linked to mainland Asia, while Sulawesi, Lesser Sunda Islands, Maluku and Papua evolved unique ecosystems due to their separation from the continental landmasses.

Indonesia boasts 54716km of coastline, featuring extensive coastal and marine ecosystems, such as dunes and mangroves, as well as coral reefs in the Coral Triangle that harbour the highest diversity of coral reef fish globally. The Wallace Line marks the biogeographical divide between Asian and Australasian species, with the region between the Wallace and Weber Lines (called Wallacea) hosting particularly high levels of endemic biodiversity. In addition, 83% of Southeast Asia's old-growth forests are located in Indonesia.

Environment and conservation

Conservation in Indonesia
Protected areas of Indonesia

Bunaken National Park in the Coral Triangle, one of Indonesia's over 100 marine protected areas

Indonesia experiences significant environmental challenges due to peatland degradation, deforestation and the overexploitation of natural resources associated with industries such as logging and plantation agriculture, particularly palm oil cultivation. This situation threatens indigenous and endemic species, including the critically endangered Bali myna, Sumatran orangutan, and Javan rhinoceros, and it is often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance. In academic discourse, some scholars have labelled the level of environmental degradation in Indonesia as ecocide.

In response, Indonesia has designated 27 million hectares (14% of the land area) as protected areas as of 2020, and has established an extensive network of marine reserves. Its conservation framework includes 54 national parks, several of which are recognised as World Heritage Sites, World Network of Biosphere Reserves, and wetlands of international importance under the 1971 Ramsar Convention. These protected areas encompass a wide range of ecosystems, including tropical rainforests and mangroves, and are intended to safeguard biodiversity while supporting sustainable resource use and local livelihoods.

Despite these measures, conservation efforts are hindered by persistent obstacles. Studies have noted that enforcement and management capacity vary across regions, while pressures from deforestation, land-use change, and resource exploitation continue to affect ecosystems and wildlife populations. Habitat loss and environmental degradation have contributed to the decline of numerous species, including several classified as threatened or endangered.

Government and politics

Politics of Indonesia
Government of Indonesia

Indonesia is governed as a presidential republic under a constitutional framework that defines its political institutions. Following the fall of the New Order in 1998, sweeping amendments to the constitution restructured the state's executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The reforms preserved Indonesia’s unitary state framework while expanding decentralisation to regional governments. The president serves as head of state, head of government, and commander-in-chief of the Indonesian National Armed Forces (Tentara Nasional Indonesia, TNI) and oversees domestic and foreign policies. Presidents may serve up to two consecutive five-year terms.

Legislative authority is vested in the People's Consultative Assembly (Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat, MPR), Indonesia's highest representative body that is responsible for amending the constitution, inaugurating and impeaching the president, and formalising state policies. It consists of two houses: the People's Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat, DPR), which has 580 members and handles legislation and executive oversight, and the Regional Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Daerah, DPD), which has 152 members and focuses on regional matters. Since 1998, reforms have expanded the governance role of the DPR.

Judicial authority is exercised by several key institutions. The Supreme Court (Mahkamah Agung) is the highest judicial body, handling final appeals and case reviews. The Constitutional Court (Mahkamah Konstitusi) adjudicates constitutional and political matters, while the country's Religious Court (Pengadilan Agama) oversees Islamic personal law cases. Additionally, the Judicial Commission (Komisi Yudisial) monitors judicial performance, and works to uphold the integrity and independence of the judiciary.

Parties and elections

List of political parties in Indonesia

Gibran Rakabuming Raka,
14th vice president of Indonesia

Prabowo Subianto,
8th president of Indonesia

Since 1999, electoral politics in Indonesia have been characterised by a competitive multi-party system in which no party has secured an outright majority of seats in the legislative elections. Political parties are commonly classified as secular-nationalist or Islamic-oriented, though political competition is typically shaped less by ideological commitments than by pragmatic coalition-building suited to prevailing political conditions. Power sharing among parties is widespread, and governing coalitions are often oversized. Unlike in many democracies, parties frequently establish alliances before elections rather than afterward.

Indonesia held its first general election in 1955, and since 2004, the president and the legislature has been directly elected for a five-year term. Members of the DPR are elected through party-based contests, while members of the DPD are elected on a non-partisan basis to represent provincial constituencies. Indonesia’s archipelagic geography and dispersed population make its national elections among the most logistically complex in the world. Ballots and electoral materials must be transported by land, sea, and air to remote islands, mountainous areas, and isolated communities.

Administrative divisions

Subdivisions of Indonesia
Indonesia is administratively divided into several levels of regional government. At the highest subnational level are provinces, each governed by an elected governor (gubernur) and a provincial legislature (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah, DPRD). Provinces are subdivided into regencies (kabupaten) and cities (kota), headed by elected regents (bupati) and mayors (wali kota) and supported by local legislatures (DPRD Kabupaten/Kota); since the implementation of regional autonomy in 1999, these units have served as the primary administrative level responsible for most public services. Below regencies and cities are districts (kecamatan), which in turn are subdivided into villages, the lowest level of administration, comprising self-governing rural villages (desa) and administratively subordinate urban villages (kelurahan).

Villages are further organised into neighbourhood and community associations (rukun tetangga, RT, and rukun warga, RW), with additional local subdivisions such as hamlets (dusun or dukuh) in Java. Nine provinces possess special autonomous status reflecting historical, cultural, or political circumstances. These include Aceh, which has the authority to implement aspects of Islamic law; Jakarta, whose designation stems from its role as the national capital; and Yogyakarta, which retains a hereditary sultanate within the republican system. Special autonomy is also granted to the six provinces in Papua to increase local self-governance and address concerns of separatism and development.

Foreign relations

Foreign relations of Indonesia

Jakarta hosts the headquarters of ASEAN and functions as the organisation's main diplomatic hub.

Indonesia follows an "independent and active" (bebas aktif) foreign policy, a term coined in 1948 by the country's first vice-president, Mohammad Hatta. With this policy, the country aims to navigate great power politics, maintain autonomy, and avoid alignment with major powers. The President holds the ultimate authority in determining the direction of foreign policy, while the Ministry of Foreign Affairs is responsible for formulating and implementing it. Meanwhile, the Parliament (DPR) provides oversight and ratifies international treaties. Indonesia is considered to be a middle power in global politics.

As the largest country in Southeast Asia and a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Indonesia considers ASEAN the cornerstone of its foreign policy. Outside of its immediate region, Indonesia has actively supported Palestine while refraining from formal diplomatic relations with Israel, although discreet ties exist. Since the start of the 21st century, Indonesia has developed close relations with China, primarily relating to trade and investments in infrastructure, while at the same time maintaining a strategic partnership with the United States, focusing on economic cooperation, security, and counterterrorism efforts.

Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, with a brief interruption in 1965, and is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) and the East Asia Summit. Indonesia is also a member of APEC, the ASEAN Free Trade Area agreement, and the World Trade Organization (WTO). Indonesia has been a humanitarian and development aid recipient since the late 1960s, but established its own foreign aid agency in 2019. The country also plays a role in maintaining international peace and security, deploying thousands of military and police personnel to multiple United Nations peacekeeping missions since 1957, including Lebanon, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Mali.

Military

Indonesian National Armed Forces

The Indonesian National Armed Forces (TNI) consists of the Army (TNI-AD), Navy (TNI-AL) (including the Marine Corps), and Air Force (TNI-AU), with active personnel numbering approximately 300,400 in the Army, 65,000 in the Navy, and 30,100 in the Air Force. Established during the Indonesian National Revolution, the TNI initially engaged in guerrilla warfare alongside informal militias, and eventually developed a territorial structure that focuses on maintaining domestic stability and deterring foreign threats. During the New Order, the military exercised a direct political role, a doctrine known as "dual function" (dwifungsi). Reforms in 1998 removed the military's overt political involvement, although it continued to wield political influence. Defence spending in 2023 was 0.7% of GDP, with controversies surrounding military-owned commercial ventures.

Since independence, Indonesia has faced separatist movements and insurgencies, notably in Aceh and Papua. While the former ended in 2005, the latter has continued alongside implementation of regional autonomy and well-documented human rights abuses by the TNI, including extrajudicial killings, forced disappearances and restrictions on freedom of expression, as reported by Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and the UNHRC. Indonesia's historical military engagements include conflicts with the Netherlands over Dutch New Guinea, opposition to the British-backed creation of Malaysia (Konfrontasi), the anti-communist mass killings, and the invasion of East Timor, which was Indonesia's largest military operation.

Law enforcement and human rights

Indonesian National Police

Riots on the streets of Jakarta on 14 May 1998, part of a wave of civil unrest that involved attacks on property and individuals associated with the ethnic Chinese community.

Law enforcement in Indonesia is primarily carried out by the Indonesian National Police (POLRI), which operates under the direct authority of the President. POLRI is tasked with law enforcement and maintaining public order and security, alongside various other agencies, supervised and trained by POLRI, that perform policing functions for specific public services.

The exercise of law enforcement and state authority have intersected with longstanding human rights concerns. Indonesia has a documented history of racial discrimination and conflicts, affecting Chinese Indonesians, Papuans, and populations impacted by the government's transmigration program. Other minorities, including religious minorities and LGBTQ individuals, also experience discrimination and social hostility.

Despite constitutional protections, issues surrounding free speech and the right to assembly remain prevalent. Laws such as the Electronic Information and Transactions (Informasi dan Transaksi Elektronik, ITE) Law are often used to criminalise dissent, with critics and activists facing charges for expressing opinions online. Peaceful protests, particularly those addressing politically sensitive issues, are frequently met with a heavy-handed response from law enforcement.

Economy

Economy of Indonesia

Palm oil plantation in Kampar Regency, Riau. Indonesia is the world's largest producer of palm oil.

Morowali Industrial Park hosting primarily nickel-related industries in Morowali Regency, Central Sulawesi. Indonesia is the world's largest producer of nickel.

Indonesia operates a mixed economy where the private sector and the government play significant roles. As the only G20 member state in Southeast Asia, it has the region's largest economy by GDP (ranking inside top 20 in nominal terms and top 10 by purchasing power parity) and is classified as a newly industrialised country. In recent years, services and industry have accounted for the largest shares of gross domestic product, while agriculture remains a major source of employment, particularly outside urban centres.

The structure of the economy has shifted considerably since independence. It was initially mostly agrarian before undergoing industrialisation and urbanisation from the late 1960s. Economic diversification accelerated in the 1980s and 1990s as manufactured exports expanded, contributing to rapid growth and poverty reduction. This growth was interrupted by the Asian financial crisis of the late 1990s, which caused a sharp economic contraction. Since the early 2000s, a combination of banking reforms, fiscal discipline, and flexible exchange-rate policies has supported a steady recovery, with growth rates generally remaining stable in the following two decades, including after the 2008 financial crisis and the COVID-19 pandemic.

Despite sustained growth, a range of structural constraints remain, including uneven regional development, a large informal sector, low productivity, infrastructure limitations, and regulatory and governance hurdles. Indonesia possesses abundant resources that continue to shape its economy. Its extractive industries produce commodities such as coal, nickel, petroleum, and natural gas, while its agricultural sector is a major global supplier of products including palm oil, coffee, and spices. The country also imports refined petroleum products and industrial inputs, and its major trade partners are primarily in Asia, alongside the United States.

Tourism

Tourism in Indonesia

Borobudur in Central Java, the world's largest Buddhist temple, is the single most visited tourist attraction in Indonesia.

Tourism is a significant source of revenue to the economy, drawing on Indonesia's natural landscapes and cultural heritage. In 2023, it contributed to GDP and drew 11.6 million international visitors. Australia, Singapore, Malaysia, China, and India are among the top five sources of visitors to Indonesia.

The country is renowned for its rich and diverse natural ecosystems, with forests covering 47.7% of its land area. Popular natural destinations include the rainforests of Sumatra and Kalimantan, particularly the Orangutan wildlife reserves. Indonesia also has one of the world's longest coastlines, stretching 54716km. Cultural tourism features prominently, with attractions like the ancient Borobudur and Prambanan temples, the Toraja highlands, and the cultural festivals of Bali.

Indonesia is home to ten UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including Komodo National Park and the Cosmological Axis of Yogyakarta. Additionally, 21 other sites are on the tentative list, such as Bunaken National Park and the Raja Ampat Islands. Historical tourism is also a major draw, with attractions like the colonial heritage of the Dutch East Indies in Jakarta, Bandung and Semarang, as well as the royal palaces of Pagaruyung and Ubud.

Science and technology

Science and technology in Indonesia

Government spending on research and development in Indonesia has historically been a small proportion of national expenditure, which has shaped the pace and scale of scientific and technological development. Historical innovations include the pinisi boats of the Bugis and Makassar people, while the most recent ones include the Sosrobahu road construction technique that has been used internationally.

Indonesia is one of the few developing countries with an aircraft manufacturing industry. The state-owned Indonesian Aerospace (PT. Dirgantara Indonesia, PTDI) has domestically produced the N219, collaborated with Spain's CASA to develop the CN-235, and supplied components to Boeing and Airbus. Beyond aerospace, another state-led industrial capability is evident in rail manufacturing, where the country produces passenger trains and freight wagons through the Indonesian Railway Industry (Industri Kereta Api, INKA), which exports trains to international markets, including Africa and New Zealand.

Indonesia is one of the first countries in Asia to build a space program. The National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (Lembaga Penerbangan dan Antariksa Nasional, LAPAN), founded in 1963, oversaw Indonesia's space program until 2021. Indonesia was the first developing country with a satellite system when LAPAN launched Palapa in 1976 with U.S. assistance. Since 2003, LAPAN has developed and launched micro-satellites for Earth-observation, remote sensing and maritime monitoring, and has conducted suborbital rocket tests, at the Pameungpeuk launch site in Garut Regency, West Java.

Infrastructure

List of main infrastructure projects in Indonesia

Transport

Transport in Indonesia

Indonesia's transport system reflects its archipelagic geography and population concentration on Java. Roads form the backbone of land transport, and public bus networks support mobility in most large cities. Transjakarta operates one of the world's largest bus rapid transit systems, while ride-hailing services and informal transport modes supplement conventional systems and are widely used. In rural areas, village transport services known as angdes (angkutan pedesaan) help connect smaller communities to cities.

*Whoosh* is the first high-speed rail in Southeast Asia and Southern Hemisphere. It is expected to be extended to the country's second largest city, Surabaya.

Railways operate mainly on Java and Sumatra, with more recent additions in Sulawesi, serving freight and passenger transport, including commuter and inter-city rail services like those in Greater Jakarta and Yogyakarta. Rapid transit systems were introduced in Jakarta and Palembang in the late 2010s, and in 2023, Indonesia opened its first high-speed rail line (Whoosh) that links Jakarta and Bandung, which is a product of collaboration with China.

Air and sea transport also play significant roles. Soekarno–Hatta International Airport, Indonesia's largest, served 54 million passengers in 2024, followed by Ngurah Rai and Juanda International Airports. Flag carrier Garuda Indonesia is one of the world's few 5-star airlines and is a member of the airline alliance SkyTeam. The Port of Tanjung Priok, the country's largest and one of the busiest in the region, handles over 50% of Indonesia's trans-shipment cargo traffic.

Energy

Energy in Indonesia

Sidrap wind farm, Indonesia's first wind power plant, in Sidrap Regency, South Sulawesi

Indonesia is a major energy producer and consumer due to its large population, industrial base and resource endowment. Total installed power generation capacity in 2023 stands at 70.8 gigawatts (GW), with coal forming the largest source of power. Other significant sources include natural gas, oil and renewables such as geothermal, hydropower and solar. The state-owned State Electricity Company (Perusahaan Listrik Negara, PLN) holds a monopoly on power generation, transmission and distribution across the country.

Indonesia's energy mix remains dependent on non-renewable sources, particularly coal and followed by natural gas and oil. Renewables, including geothermal, hydropower and solar account for a limited but gradually increasing share. The potential for renewable energy is substantial, particularly geothermal, where the country ranks as one of the world's largest producers. The country is an important exporter of energy commodities, including coal and liquefied natural gas, while also importing refined petroleum products.

The government has outlined plans to diversify energy sources and increase the share of renewables as part of longer-term efforts to reduce emissions. However, the country has insufficient infrastructure for renewable energy, struggles to provide electricity to remote areas, and continues to rely heavily on coal.

Demographics

Demographics of Indonesia
List of Indonesian cities by population

A map of districts (*kecamatan*) coloured by population density as measured by person per square kilometres

Indonesia's population is large and regionally diverse, with significant variation in settlement patterns and social composition. The country's most recent census in 2020 recorded a population of 270.2 million, ranking Indonesia as the world's fourth most populous country, with the population growing at a rate of 1.25% between 2010 and 2020. Java, the world's most populated island, is home to 56% of the population. The overall population density stands at 141/km2, but Java's density is significantly higher, reaching 1,171/km2. Indonesia's first post-colonial census in 1961 recorded a population of 97 million, and projections estimate it will grow to 335 million by 2050. The country maintains a relatively young demographic, with a median age of 31.5 years as of 2024.

Indonesia's population distribution is highly uneven, reflecting its diverse geography and varying levels of development. It ranges from the bustling megacity of Jakarta to remote and uncontacted tribes in Papua. As of 2024, approximately 59% of Indonesians live in urban areas, with Jakarta as the country's primate city and the world's most populous urban area, housing nearly 42 million people according to the United Nations. In addition, about 8 million Indonesians reside overseas, with large communities in Malaysia, the Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, and Taiwan.

Ethnic groups and languages

Ethnic groups in Indonesia

Indonesia is home to around 600 distinct native ethnic groups, predominantly descended from Austronesian peoples speaking Proto-Austronesian languages, likely from modern-day Taiwan. The Melanesians, who inhabit eastern Indonesia, represent another significant ethnic grouping. The Javanese, making up 40% of the population, are the largest ethnic group and the politically dominant one, primarily residing in central and eastern Java, with sizeable numbers in other provinces. Other major groups include the Sundanese, Malay, Batak, Madurese, Betawi, Minangkabau, and Bugis. A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strong regional identities.

The official language, Indonesian, is a standardized variety of Malay based on its prestige dialect originating around the Riau-Johor region, which became the archipelago's lingua franca over the course of centuries. It was first promoted by nationalists in the 1920s and gained official status in 1945, following independence, under the name Bahasa Indonesia, and has since been widely adopted due to its use in education, media, business, and governance. While nearly all Indonesians speak Bahasa, most also speak one of over 700 local languages, often as their first language. These are predominantly from the Austronesian family, with more than 150 Papuan languages in eastern Indonesia. Javanese is the most widely spoken local language and holds co-official status in Yogyakarta.

The Dutch and other European-descended populations like the Indos, though significant during colonial times, always represented a small fraction of the population, numbering only around 200,000 in 1930. The Dutch language never gained substantial traction due to the Dutch colonial focus on commerce rather than cultural integration. Dutch fluency exists today in small numbers among some older generations and legal professionals, as specific legal codes remain available only in that language.

Religion

Religion in Indonesia

A map of districts (*kecamatan*) coloured by plurality/majority religious affiliation and what percentage of citizens it represents

Indonesia officially recognises six religions: Islam, Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism, while acknowledging religious freedom in the constitution. As of 2023, 87.1% of the population (244 million Indonesians) are Muslims, making Indonesia the world's most populous Muslim-majority country, with Sunnis constituting 99% of the Muslim population. Christians, comprising 10% of the population, form majorities in several eastern provinces, while Hindus and Buddhists are primarily Balinese and Chinese Indonesians, respectively.

Buddhist monks performing Pradakshina ritual at Borobudur temple, Central Java

Before the arrival of major world religions, Indonesia's native peoples practised animism and dynamism, worshipping ancestral spirits and believing in the supernatural (hyang) inhabiting natural elements, such as large trees, mountains and forests. Such beliefs are common to the Austronesian peoples. These indigenous traditions, such as Sundanese Sunda Wiwitan, Javanese Kejawèn, and Dayak's Kaharingan, have profoundly influenced modern religious practices, resulting in a less orthodox and syncretic form of faith like Javanese abangan, Balinese Hinduism and Dayak Christianity.

A Hindu prayer ceremony at Besakih Temple in Bali, the only province where Hinduism is the predominant religion

Hinduism reached the archipelago in the 1st century CE, followed by Buddhism in the 5th century. Through empires such as Majapahit, Srivijaya, and Sailendra, both religions played a major role in shaping Indonesia's religious history and left enduring cultural influences that persist even though neither is a majority faith. Islam arrived as early as the 8th century through Sunni and Sufi traders from the Indian subcontinent and southern Arabian peninsula, mixing with local cultural and religious traditions to form a distinct Islamic culture (santri). By the 16th century, Islam had become the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra, resulting from the blend of trade, dawah, such as by the Wali Sanga and Chinese explorer Zheng He, and military campaigns by several sultanates.

Baiturrahman Grand Mosque in Banda Aceh, Aceh. The spread of Islam in Indonesia began in the region.

Catholicism and Protestantism were later introduced through missionary efforts during European colonisation, such as by Francis Xavier, though the spread of the former encountered difficulties under the VOC and Dutch colonial eras. The latter's primary branches include the Dutch Reformed Church and Lutheranism, though a multitude of other denominations exist in the country. A small Jewish presence has existed in the archipelago, primarily descendants of Dutch and Iraqi Jews, though their numbers have dwindled since independence in 1945. Only a few Jews remain today, mostly in major cities like Jakarta, Manado and Surabaya. One of the remaining synagogues, Sha'ar Hashamayim, is located in Tondano, around 31 km from Manado.

*Semana Santa* festival in Larantuka, East Nusa Tenggara, a Catholic ritual during Holy Week

Religion is central to the lives of the overwhelming majority of Indonesians, reflecting its integral role in the country's society, culture, and identity. Interfaith relations are significantly shaped by political leadership and civil society, guided by the first principle of Pancasila, which emphasises belief in a supreme deity and religious tolerance. While it promotes harmony, religious intolerance continues to be a recurring issue. Followers of indigenous religions, officially called aliran kepercayaan or cultural belief systems, have been subject to a lack of legal and governmental recognition that leads to discrimination as well as uncertainty regarding their exact numbers.

Education

Education in Indonesia

Indonesia has one of the largest education systems in the world, with over 50 million students, 4 million teachers, and more than 250,000 schools. Overseen by several government ministries, the system follows a 6-3-3-4 structure: six years of elementary school, three years each of junior and senior secondary school, and four years of tertiary education. While the literacy rate is high (96%), it is lower in rural areas. Enrolment rates vary across educational levels, with near-universal enrolment in primary education (97.9%), but drop to 81.7% and 64.2% in lower and upper secondary education and around 42.6% for tertiary education.

Government spending on education accounted for approximately 1.3% of GDP in 2023. In 2022, there were 4,481 higher education institutions in the country, including universities, Islamic institutions, and open universities. Among these, the University of Indonesia, Gadjah Mada University, and the Bandung Institute of Technology stand out as the country's leading institutions, all ranking within the world's top 300 universities.

Issues regarding quality and equity are persistent, particularly urban–rural disparities, inadequate infrastructure, and a lack of qualified teachers, whose wages are lower than those in neighbouring countries. The system also lags behind international benchmarks, such as the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), where Indonesian students consistently rank near the bottom in reading, mathematics, and science. The higher education sector has been struggling with underfunding, low quality, limited research output and a mismatch between graduates' skills and labour market needs.

Healthcare

Healthcare in Indonesia

Indonesia has made significant progress in developing its healthcare system since 1945. Initially, healthcare services were limited, with a shortage of doctors, hospitals, and infrastructure. In the late 1960s, the government began establishing community health centres (puskesmas) to provide basic services in rural areas. With the help of the World Health Organization in the 1970s and 1980s, Indonesia implemented an immunisation program to combat diseases like polio and measles. The system experienced a major transformation in 2014 with the launch of Jaminan Kesehatan Nasional (JKN), a universal health care managed by the Social Security Agency on Health (BPJS Kesehatan). It is one of the world's largest single-payer systems, covering over 95% of the population (265 million people) by 2023.

Government spending on healthcare accounted for 2.69% of GDP in 2022. Primary healthcare is delivered through puskesmas, hospitals, and private clinics. While the healthcare system lags behind those in ASEAN neighbours like Malaysia and Singapore, significant public health outcomes have been achieved, such as an increase in life expectancy (from 54.9 years in 1973 to 71.1 years in 2023), a decline in child mortality (from 15.5 deaths per 100 live births in 1972 to 2.1 deaths in 2022), polio eradication in 2014, and decreasing cases of malaria.

Some chronic health issues persist, including child stunting that affects 21.6% of children under five according to a 2022 data. Low air quality, particularly in major cities, contributes to respiratory illnesses, while maternal and child health indicators remain areas of concern, with a maternal mortality rate the third highest in the region. Additionally, Indonesia has one of the highest smoking rates globally (34.8% of adults), contributing to a high prevalence of non-communicable diseases like cardiovascular issues and lung cancer.

Culture

Culture of Indonesia
National Intangible Cultural Heritage of Indonesia
Indonesia's culture reflects more than two millennia of interaction between indigenous traditions and external influences. Its cultural development has been shaped by Austronesian and Melanesian heritage, as well as sustained contact with the Indian subcontinent, China, the Middle East, and Europe through trade, migration, and colonisation. These interactions have produced a society characterised by diversity in culture, language and ethnicity, including artistic expression and social practice.

Indonesia currently has 16 items recognised by UNESCO as Intangible Cultural Heritage, including wayang puppet theatre, batik, angklung, the saman dance, and pencak silat, with recent joint nominations adding pantun, kebaya, and kolintang to the list.

Art and architecture

Indonesian art
Indonesian painting

Tongkonan, a traditional vernacular house

Pagaruyung Palace, a Minangkabau architecture from West Sumatra

*Six Horsemen Chasing Deer* (1860) by Raden Saleh

Gedung Sate, an example of Sundanese and foreign architecture in West Java

Indonesian visual arts encompass a wide range of traditional and contemporary forms that reflect regional diversity and historical exchange. Bali's artistic traditions, such as classical Kamasan and Wayang-style painting, are renowned, originating from visual narratives depicted on candi bas-reliefs from eastern Java. Traditional architecture varies significantly among ethnic groups and regions, with iconic and traditional houses (rumah adat) like Toraja's Tongkonan, Minangkabau's Rumah Gadang, Java's Pendopo, and Dayak longhouses each showcasing unique local customs and histories.

Megalithic sculptures discovered in parts of Sumatra, Sulawesi, and eastern Indonesia illustrate tribal arts among communities such as the Nias, Batak, Asmat, Dayak, and Toraja peoples. From the 8th to the 15th centuries, the Javanese civilisation excelled in sophisticated stone sculpting and architecture, heavily influenced by the Hindu-Buddhist Dharmic culture. This period produced monumental works like the Borobudur and Prambanan temples. both of which are emblematic of Indonesia's cultural heritage.

Music, dance and clothing

Music of Indonesia

Music and dance play an important role in Indonesian cultural life and have long been associated with ritual, storytelling, and communal gatherings. Indigenous musical traditions predate written records, with tribes employing instruments like the angklung, gamelan, and sasando. Over time, external influences enriched Indonesian music, such as the gambus and qasida from the Middle East, keroncong from Portugal, and dangdut, which incorporates Hindi, Malay, and Middle Eastern elements. Today, Indonesian music enjoys regional popularity in Malaysia and Singapore due to cultural similarities and language intelligibility.

Indonesia is home to more than 3,000 traditional dances, many of which originated in rituals and religious worship, such as the dance of witch doctors and Hudoq, as well as periods of Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic influence. In contemporary Indonesia, traditional dances like those of Java, Bali, and Dayak continue to be a living tradition

amid the growing popularity of modern and urban dances shaped by Western and South Korean cultures, such as hip-hop and K-pop.

Clothing traditions also vary widely across the archipelago. Batik and kebaya are widely recognised as national attire, with predominant roots in Javanese culture. Traditional attire varies by region and province, such as the Batak ulos, Malay and Minangkabau songket, and Sasak ikat, and is commonly worn for ceremonies, weddings, and formal events.

Theatre and cinema

Cinema of Indonesia
List of highest-grossing films in Indonesia

Traditional Indonesian theatre encompasses a variety of performance forms that combine storytelling, music, and visual art. Wayang shadow puppetry, is one of the best-known forms, often depicting Hindu epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata. Other theatrical traditions include Ludruk, Ketoprak, Sandiwara, Lenong, and Balinese dance dramas, which often incorporate humour, music, and audience interaction. Regional performance traditions reflect local histories and values like the Minangkabau Randai, which combines music, dance, and martial arts (silat) to recount legends and historical narratives. In the modern period, theatre groups such as Teater Koma, have used satire to address social and political themes.

Indonesia's film industry began during the Dutch colonial period with the release of Loetoeng Kasaroeng (1926) and it expanded post-independence with Usmar Ismail's pioneering work in the 1950s. During the latter part of the Sukarno era in the 1960s, films were used to promote nationalism and anti-Western sentiment, while Suharto's New Order imposed censorship to maintain social order. Film productions peaked in the 1980s with notable titles such as Pengabdi Setan (1980), Tjoet Nja' Dhien (1988) and Warkop comedy films, but the industry declined in the 1990s.

In the post-Suharto era, the industry saw a resurgence. Independent filmmakers tackled previously censored themes like race, religion, and love, producing notable films such as Kuldesak (1999) and Ada Apa dengan Cinta? (2002). The Indonesian Film Festival (Festival Film Indonesia), which gives out the Citra Award, has celebrated cinematic achievements since 1955.

Literature and mass media

Indonesian literature

Pramoedya Ananta Toer was considered to be Southeast Asia's leading candidate for a Nobel Prize in Literature.

Media and literary traditions in Indonesia reflect both historical continuity and technological change. Early literature include Sanskrit inscriptions from the 5th century and a strong oral tradition, later expressed through written forms such as syair, pantun, hikayat, and babad. Notable works in this category include Hikayat Hang Tuah and Babad Tanah Jawi. The establishment of Balai Pustaka in 1917 marked a push to develop indigenous literature, leading to a literary Golden Age in the 1950s and 1960s. Early modern literature originates in the Sumatran tradition and has been shaped by political and social change, producing works from notable figures like Chairil Anwar, Pramoedya Ananta Toer, and Ayu Utami.

Media freedom in Indonesia significantly improved after the fall of Suharto's rule, during which the Ministry of Information tightly controlled the media. The early years of the post-Suharto era was marked by a proliferation of print and electronic media amid greater press freedom. Internet use, which began in the early 1990s after the first Internet service provider went commercial, grew rapidly after 2000 and began transforming patters of media consumption, which had become evident during the 2010s. By 2023, the country had 210 million internet users, with mobile phones as the primary point of access.

Cuisine

Indonesian cuisine

Indonesian cuisine reflects the country's geographic diversity, cultural plurality, and long history of external contact. It comprises numerous regional traditions shaped by indigenous practices and foreign influences, including Chinese, Middle Eastern, Indian, African, and European cuisines. Rice is the primary staple food across much of the archipelago and is typically served with side dishes of meat, vegetables, or fish. Fundamental ingredients include spices—particularly chilli—along with coconut milk, fish, and chicken, which contribute to the distinctive flavour profiles found across different regions.

Some popular dishes, such as nasi goreng, gado-gado, mie, and sate, are widely consumed throughout the country. Regional cuisines remain strongly associated with local identities, with Minangkabau dishes like rendang gaining international recognition. Fermented foods also form part of Indonesian culinary traditions, including oncom, which is produced using various fungal cultures and is especially prevalent in West Java. In 2014, the Ministry of Tourism designated tumpeng as an icon of Indonesian traditional cuisine, symbolising the nation's diverse food cultures.

Sports

Sports in Indonesia

A demonstration of pencak silat, a form of martial arts

Sports in Indonesia include both internationally competitive disciplines and traditional activities. Association football is the most popular sport in terms of nationwide engagement and interest. The Super League functions as the country's top-tier competition. Indonesia was the first Asian representative to appear at the FIFA World Cup, taking part in the 1938 tournament as the Dutch East Indies. Despite its popularity, the national program has only achieved limited success at the regional level, such as the Southeast Asian Games (SEA Games).

Badminton has produced Indonesia's most notable international sporting results. The country is among the few to have won both the Thomas and Uber Cups, the world team championship of men's and women's badminton. Together with weightlifting, badminton contributes the largest share of Indonesia's Olympic gold medals. Other popular sports include boxing and basketball, which were featured in the country's multi-sport event National Sports Week (Pekan Olahraga Nasional, PON) in 1948.

Examples of traditional sports include sepak takraw, bull racing (karapan sapi) in Madura, and ritual combat traditions, such as caci in Flores and pasola in Sumba. Pencak silat is an Indonesian martial art, which became an official event at the 2018 Asian Games, where Indonesia emerged as one of the leading competitors. In multi-sport regional competitions, Indonesia has topped the SEA Games medal table ten times since 1977, and ranks second in the all-time medal standings behind Thailand.

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External links

Key Development Forecasts for Indonesia from International Futures

Government

Government Archived 12 May 2025, at web.archive.org – Official website of the Government of Indonesia
Presidency – official website of the president of Indonesia
Vice President – official website of the vice president of Indonesia
People's Consultative Assembly – official website of People's Consultative Assembly of the Republic of Indobesia
Regional Representative Council Archived 3 December 2016, at web.archive.org – official website of Indonesia Regional Representative Council
House of Representatives Archived 4 February 2012, at web.archive.org – official website of Indonesia House of Representatives
Supreme Court – official website of the Supreme Court of Indonesia
Constitutional Court – official website of the Constitutional Court of Indonesia
Statistics – official website of Statistics Indonesia

History

"History" – Indonesian history at Repositori Institusi

Tourism

Wonderful Indonesia Archived 27 April 2025, at web.archive.org – Indonesia's official tourism portal

Maps

5°S, 120°E

Category:Countries in Asia
Category:Member states of ASEAN
Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
Category:1945 establishments in Indonesia
Category:Island countries
Category:1945 establishments in Asia
Category:1945 establishments in Southeast Asia
Category:Countries in Melanesia
Category:Developing 8 Countries member states
Category:G15 nations
Category:G20 members
Category:Former OPEC member states
Category:Maritime Southeast Asia
Category:Member states of the United Nations
Category:Republics
Category:Countries in Southeast Asia
Category:States and territories established in 1945
Category:Countries and territories where Malay is an official language
Category:BRICS nations
Category:Tiger Cub Economies

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